Vaccinated Read online

  1918 influenza pandemic: Barry, Great Influenza; Kolata, Flu; R. B. Belshe, "The Origins of Pandemic Influenza: Lessons from the 1918 Virus," New England Journal of Medicine 353 (2005): 2209–11; J. S. Oxford, "Influenza A Pandemics of the 20th Century with Special Reference to 1918: Virology, Pathology and Epidemiology," Reviews in Medical Virology 10 (2000): 110–33.

  AIDS pandemic: "The Global HIV/AIDS Pandemic," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, April 11, 2006.

  Jeryl Hilleman quote: "The Vaccine Hunter," BBC Radio 4, producer Pauline Moffatt, June 21, 2006.

  Ricketts: H. T. Ricketts, "The Transmission of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever by the Bite of the Wood-Tick (Dermacentor occidentalis)," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 358.

  Lorraine Hilleman quote: "The Vaccine Hunter," BBC Radio 4, producer Pauline Moffatt, June 21, 2006.

  Infection and wars: McNeill, Plagues.

  New York Times article: "Hong Kong Battling Influenza Epidemic," New York Times, April 17, 1957.

  1957 pandemic: S. F. Dowell, B. A. Kupronis, E. R. Zell, and D. K. Shay "Mortality from Pneumonia in Children in the United States, 1939 through 1996," New England Journal of Medicine 342 (2000): 1399–1407; J. R. Schäfer, Y. Kawaoka, W. J. Bean, et al., "Origin of the Pandemic 1957 H2 Influenza A Virus and the Persistence of Its Possible Progenitors in the Avian Reservoir, Virology 194 (1993): 781–88; N. J. Cox, and K. Subbarao, "Global Epidemiology of Influenza: Past and Present," Annual Reviews of Medicine 51 (2000): 407–21; Y. Karaoka, S. Krauss, and R. G. Webster, "Avian-to-Human Transmission of the PB1 Gene of Influenza A Viruses in the 1957 and 1968 Pandemics," Journal of Virology 63 (1989): 4603–8; L. Simonsen, M. J. Clarke, L. B. Schonberger, et al., "Pandemic versus Epidemic Influenza Mortality: A Pattern of Changing Age Distribution," Journal of Infectious Diseases 178 (1998): 53–60; D. F. Hoft, and R. B. Belshe, "The Genetic Archaeology of Influenza," New England Journal of Medicine 351 (2004): 2550–51.

  Hilleman influenza studies: M. R. Hilleman, R. P. Mason, and N. G. Rogers, "Laboratory Studies on the 1950 Outbreak of Influenza," Public Health Reports 65 (1950): 771–77; M. R. Hilleman, R. P. Mason, and E. L. Buesher, "Antigenic Pattern of Strains of Influenza A and B," Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 75 (1950): 829–35; M. R. Hilleman, E. L. Buescher, and J. E. Smadel, "Preparation of Dried Antigen and Antiserum for the Agglutination-Inhibition Test for Influenza Virus," Public Health Reports 66 (1951): 1195–1203; M.R. Hilleman, "System for Measuring and Designating Antigenic Components of Influenza Viruses with Analyses of Recently Isolated Strains," Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Medicine and Biology 78 (1951): 208–15; M. R. Hilleman, "A Pattern of Antigen Variation," Federation Proceedings 11 (1952): 798–803; M. R. Hilleman, and F. L. Horsfall, "Comparison of the Antigenic Patterns of Influenza A Virus Strains Determined by in ovo Neutralization and Hemagglutination-Inhibition," Journal of Immunology 69 (1952): 343–56; M. R. Hilleman, and J. H. Werner, "Influence of Non-Specific Inhibitor of the Diagnostic Hemagglutination-Inhibition Test for Influenza," Journal of Immunology 71 (1953): 110–17; M. R. Hilleman, J. H. Werner, and R. L. Gauld, "Influenza Antibodies in the Population in the USA," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 8 (1953): 613–31; M. R. Hilleman, "Antigenic Variation of Influenza Viruses," Annual Review of Microbiology 8 (1954): 311–32; H. M. Meyer, M. R. Hilleman, M. L. Miesse, et al., "New Antigenic Variant in Far East Influenza Epidemic, 1957," Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Medicine and Biology 95 (1957): 609–16; M. R. Hilleman, "Asian Influenza: Initial Identification of Asiatic Virus and Antibody Response in Volunteers to Vaccination," Proceedings of a Special Conference on Influenza, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, August 27–28 1957; M. R. Hilleman, F. J. Flatley, S. A. Anderson, et al., "Antibody Response in Volunteers to Asian Influenza Vaccine," Journal of the American Medical Association 166 (1958): 1134–40; M. R. Hilleman, F. J. Flatley, S. A. Anderson, et al., "Distribution and Significance of Asian and Other Influenza Antibodies in the Human Population," New England Journal of Medicine 258 (1958): 969–74; C. C. Mascoli, M. B. Leagus, and M. R. Hilleman, "Influenza B in the Spring of 1965," Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 123 (1966): 952–60; M. R. Hilleman, "The Roles of Early Alert and of Adjuvant in the Control of Hong Kong Influenza by Vaccines," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 41 (1969): 623–28.

  Hilleman prediction about bird flu: M. R. Hilleman, "Realities and Enigmas of Human Viral Influenza: Pathogenesis, Epidemiology and Control," Vaccine 20 (2002): 3068–87.

  Jeryl Lynn

  Robert Weibel, Art Caplan, and Jeryl Lynn Hilleman were interviewed on January 6, 2005; March 10, 2005; and March 11, 2005, respectively.

  Mumps disease: Plotkin and Orenstein, Vaccines.

  Hilleman mumps vaccine studies: E. B. Buynak, and M. R. Hilleman, "Live Attenuated Mumps-Virus Vaccine, I: Vaccine Development," Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 123 (1966): 768–75; J. Stokes Jr., R. E. Weibel, E. B. Buynak, and M. R. Hilleman, "Live Attenuated Mumps-Virus Vaccine. II: Early Clinical Studies," New England Journal of Medicine 39 (1967): 363–71; R. W. Weibel, J. Stokes Jr., E. B. Buynak, J. E. Whitman, and M. R. Hilleman, "Live, Attenuated Mumps-Virus Vaccine; 3: Clinical and Serological Aspects in a Field Evaluation," New England Journal of Medicine 276 (1967): 245–51; M. R. Hilleman, R. W. Weibel, E. B. Buynak, J. Stokes Jr., J. E. Whitman, "Live, Attenuated Mumps-Virus Vaccine; 4: Protective Efficacy as Measured in a Field Evaluation," New England Journal of Medicine 276 (1967): 252–58; R. W. Weibel, E. B. Buynak, J. Stokes Jr., J. E. Whitman, and M. R. Hilleman, "Evaluation of Live Attenuated Mumps Virus Vaccine, Strain Jeryl Lynn," Pan American Health Organization, Scientific Publication No. 147, May 1967, 430–37; R. W. Weibel, J. Stokes Jr., E. B. Buynak, M. B. Leagus, and M. R. Hilleman, "Jeryl Lynn Strain Live Attenuated Mumps Virus Vaccine: Duration of Immunity Following Administration," Journal of the American Medical Association 203 (1968): 14–18; R. W. Weibel, E. B. Buynak, J. E. Whitman, M. B. Leagus, J. Stokes Jr., and M. R. Hilleman, "Jeryl Lynn Strain Live Attenuated Mumps Virus Vaccine: Duration of Immunity for Three Years Following Vaccination," Journal of the American Medical Association 207 (1969): 1667–70; R. W. Weibel, E. B. Buynak, J Stokes Jr., and M. R. Hilleman, "Persistence of Immunity Four Years Following Jeryl Lynn Strain of Live Mumps Virus Vaccine," Pediatrics 45 (1970): 821–26.

  Polio vaccine studies: Carter, Breakthrough; J. Smith, Patenting the Sun; Oshinsky, Polio; interview with Donna Salk, February 10, 1999; J. A. Kolmer, G. F. Klugh, and A. M. Rule, "A Successful Method for Vaccination against Acute Anterior Poliomyelitis," Journal of the American Medical Association 104 (1935): 456–60; J. A. Kolmer, "Susceptibility and Immunity in Relation to Vaccination with Acute Anterior Poliomyelitis," Journal of the American Medical Association 105 (1935): 1956–62.

  Willowbrook studies: Rothman and Rothman, Willowbrook; G. Rivera, Willowbrook: A Report on How It Is and Why It Doesn't Have to Be That Way (New York: Vintage Books, 1972); S. Krugman, and R. Ward, "Clinical and Experimental Studies of Infectious Hepatitis," Pediatrics 22 (1958): 1016–22; S. Krugman, "The Willowbrook Hepatitis Studies Revisited: Ethical Aspects," Reviews of Infectious Diseases 8 (1986): 157–62.

  Fernald studies: N. Fost, "America's Gulag Archipelago," New England Journal of Medicine 351 (2004): 2369–70.

  Impact of mumps vaccine: Plotkin and Orenstein, Vaccines.

  Mumps versus Jeryl Lynn: A. Dove, "Maurice Hilleman," Nature Medicine Supplement 11 (2005): 52.

  Eight Doors

  An excellent summary of the history of vaccine development and of the historic events that influenced Hilleman's work can be found in the following: Plotkin and Fantini, Vaccinia; M. R. Hilleman: "Vaccines and the Vaccine Enterprise: Historic and Contemporary View of a Scientific Initiative of Complex Dimensions," The Jordan Report (2002); "Personal Reflections on Twentieth Century Vaccinology," Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public
Health 34 (2003): 244–48; and "Overview of Vaccinology in Historic and Future Perspective: The Whence and Whither of a Dynamic Science with Complex Dimensions," in DNA Vaccines, ed. H. C. J. Ertl (Plenum Publishers, London, 2003). 31 Jenner and the smallpox vaccine: Tucker, Scourge; Radetsky, Invaders; Williams, Virus Hunters; B. Moss, "Vaccinia Virus: A Tool for Research and Vaccine Development," Science 252 (1991): 1662–67; M. Radetsky, "Smallpox: A History of Its Rise and Fall, Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 18 (1999): 85–93.

  Smallpox vaccine problems: Tucker, Scourge.

  Pasteur: Radetsky, Invaders; Williams, Virus Hunters; Debré, Pasteur; Geison, Private Science.

  Pasteur vaccine problems: Plotkin and Orenstein, Vaccines.

  Beijerinck: van Iterson, De Jong, and Kluyver, Beijerinck; Radetsky, Invaders; Williams, Virus Hunters; "Beijerinck and His "Filterable Principle,'" Hospital Practice 26 (1991): 69–86. 38 Carrel: Williams, Virus Hunters; http://crishunt.8bit.co.uk/alexiscarrel. html; http://members.aol.com/amaccvpe/history.carrel.htm; http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/445.html.

  Goodpasture: Collins, Goodpasture; A. M. Woodruff, and E. W. Goodpasture, "The Susceptibility of the Chorio-Allantoic Membrance of Chick Embryos to Infection with Fowl-Pox Virus," American Journal of Pathology 7 (1931): 209–22; M. Burnet, "The Influence of a Great Pathologist: A Tribute to Ernest Goodpasture," Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 16 (1973): 333–47.

  Theiler: Williams, Virus Hunters; Plotkin and Orenstein, Vaccines; H. H. Smith and M. Theiler, "The Adaptation of Unmodified Strains of Yellow Fever Virus to Cultivation in vitro," Journal of Experimental Medicine 65 (1937): 801–8; M. Theiler and H. H. Smith, "The Effect of Prolonged Cultivation in vitro upon the Pathogenicity of Yellow Fever Virus," Journal of Experimental Medicine 65 (1937): 767–86; T. N. Raju, "The Nobel Chronicles," Lancet 353 (1999): 1450; M. A. Shampo, and R. A. Kyle, "Max Theiler: Nobel Laureate for Yellow Fever Vaccine," Mayo Clinic Proceedings 78 (2003): 728.

  Yellow fever vaccine and hepatitis: J. P. Fox, C. Manso, H. A. Penna, and M. Para, "Observations on the Occurrence of Icterus in Brazil Following Vaccination against Yellow Fever," American Journal of Hygiene 36 (1942): 68–116; M. V. Hargett and H. W. Burruss, "Aqueous-Based Yellow Fever Vaccine," Public Health Reports 58 (1943): 505–12; W. A. Sawyer, K. F. Meyer, M. D. Eaton, et al., "Jaundice in Army Personnel in the Western Region of the United States and Its Relation to Vaccination against Yellow Fever," American Journal of Hygiene 40 (1944): 35–107; L. B. Seeff, G. W. Beebe, J. H. Hoofnagle, et al., "A Serologic Follow-Up of the 1942 Epidemic of Post-Vaccination Hepatitis in the United States Army," New England Journal of Medicine 316 (1987): 965–70.

  Enders, Weller and Robbins: Williams, Virus Hunters; Radetsky, Invaders; Weller, Growing Pathogens; J. F. Enders, T. H. Weller, and F. C. Robbins, "Cultivation of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus in Cultures of Various Human Tissues," Science 109 (1949): 85–87; T. H. Weller, F. C. Robbins, and J. F. Enders, "Cultivation of Poliomyelitis Virus in Cultures of Human Foreskin and Embryonic Tissues," Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine 72 (1949): 153–55; F. C. Robbins, J. F. Enders, and T. H. Weller, "Cytopathogenic Effect of Poliomyelitis Virus in vitro on Human Embryonic Tissues," Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine 75 (1950): 370–74.

  Salk: J. Smith, Patenting the Sun; Carter, Breakthrough; Tony Gould, A Summer Plague: Polio and its Survivors (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995).

  The Cutter Incident: Offit, Cutter.

  The Destroying Angel

  Samuel Katz and Thomas Weller were interviewed on February 22, 2005, and November 10, 2005, respectively.

  NOTES

  Measles: Plotkin and Orenstein, Vaccines; M. R. Hilleman, "Current Overview of the Pathogenesis and Prophylaxis of Measles with Focus on Practical Implications," Vaccine 20 (2002): 651–65.

  Peebles: Williams, Virus Hunters.

  Enders's laboratory measles studies: J. F. Enders and T. C. Peebles, "Propagation in Tissue Cultures of Cytopathogenic Agents from Patients with Measles," Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 86 (1954): 277–86; J. F. Enders, T. C. Peebles, K. McCarthy, M. Milovanovic, et al., "Measles Virus: A Summary of Experiments Concerned with Isolation, Properties, and Behavior," American Journal of Public Health 47 (1957): 275–82; S. L. Katz, M. Milovanovic, and J. F. Enders, "Propagation of Measles Virus in Cultures of Chick Embryo Cells," Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine 37 (1958): 23–29; J. F. Enders, S. L. Katz, M. V. Milovanovic, and A. Holloway, "Studies on Attenuated Measles-Virus Vaccine, I: Development and Preparation of the Vaccine: Techniques for Assay of Effects of Vaccination," New England Journal of Medicine 263 (1960): 153–69; S. L. Katz, J. F. Enders, and A. Holloway, "Studies on an Attenuated Measles-Virus Vaccines, II: Clinical, Virologic and Immunologic Effects of Vaccine in Institutionalized Children," New England Journal of Medicine 263 (1960): 157–61; S. Krugman, J. P. Giles, and A. M. Jacobs, "Studies on Attenuated Measles-Virus Vaccine; VI: Clinical, Antigenic and Prophylactic Effects of Vaccine in Institutionalized Children," New England Journal of Medicine 263 (1960): 174–77; S. L. Katz, H. Kempe, F. L. Balck, et al., "Studies on Attenuated Measles-Virus Vaccine; VIII: General Summary and Evaluation of Results of Vaccination," New England Journal of Medicine 263 (1960): 180–84.

  Hilleman measles studies: J. Stokes Jr., C. M. Reilly, M. R. Hilleman, and E. B. Buynak, "Use of Living Attenuated Measles-Virus Vaccine in Early Infancy," New England Journal of Medicine 263 (1960): 230–33; C. M. Reilly, J. Stokes Jr., E. B. Buynak, G. Goldner, and M. R. Hilleman, "Living Attenuated Measles-Virus Vaccine in Early Infancy: Studies of the Role of Passive Antibody in Immunization," New England Journal of Medicine 265 (1961): 165–69; J. Stokes Jr., M. R. Hilleman, R. E. Weibel, et al., "Efficacy of Live, Attenuated Measles-Virus Vaccine Given with Human Immune Globulin: A Preliminary Report," New England Journal of Medicine 265 (1961): 507–13; J. Stokes Jr., C. M. Reilly, E. B. Buynak, and M. R. Hilleman, "Immunologic Studies of Measles," American Journal of Hygiene 74 (1961): 293–303; J. Stokes Jr., R. E. Weibel, R. Halenda, C. M. Reilly, and M. R. Hilleman, "Studies of Live Attenuated Measles-Virus Vaccine in Man, I: Clinical Aspects," American Journal of Public Health 52 (1962): 29–43; M. R. Hilleman, J. Stokes Jr., E.B. Buynak, et al., "Studies of Live Attenuated Measles-Virus Vaccine in Man, II: Appraisal of Efficacy," American Journal of Public Health 52 (1962): 44–56; J. Stokes Jr., R. Weibel, R. Halenda, C. M. Reilly, and M. R. Hilleman, "Enders Live Measles-Virus Vaccine with Human Immune Globulin, I: Clinical Reactions," American Journal of Diseases of Children 103 (1962): 366–72; M. R. Hilleman, J. Stokes Jr., E. B. Buynak, et al., "Enders' Live Measles-Virus Vaccine with Human Immune Globulin," American Journal of Diseases of Children 103 (1962): 373–79; M. R. Hilleman and H. Goldner, "Perspectives for Testing Safety of Live Measles Vaccine," American Journal of Diseases of Children 103 (1962): 484–95; M. R. Hilleman, J. Stokes Jr., E. B. Buynak, et al., "Immunogenic Response to Killed Measles Vaccine," American Journal of Diseases of Children 103 (1962): 445–51; J. Stokes Jr., M. R. Hilleman, R. E. Weibel, et al., "Persistent Immunity Following Enders Live, Attenuated Measles-Virus Vaccine Given with Human Immune Globulin," New England Journal of Medicine 267 (1962): 222–24; R. E. Weibel, J. Stokes Jr., R. Halenda, E. B. Buynak, and M. R. Hilleman, "Durable Immunity Two Years after Administration of Enders's Live Measles-Virus Vaccine with Immune Globulin," New England Journal of Medicine 270 (1964) : 172–75; M. R. Hilleman, E. B. Buynak, R. E. Weibel, et al., "Development and Evaluation of the Moraten Measles Vaccine," Journal of the American Medical Association 206 (1968): 587–90; E. B. Buynak, R. E. Weibel, A. A. McLean, and M. R. Hilleman, "Long-Term Persistence of Antibody Following Enders' Original and More Attenuated Live Measles Virus Vaccine," Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine 153 (1976): 441–43; M. R. Hilleman, "Current Overview of the Pathogenesis and Prophylaxis of Measles with Focus on Practical Implications," V
accine 20 (2002): 651–65.

  Stokes and gamma globulin: A. M. Bongiovanni, "Joseph Stokes Jr.," Pediatrics 50 (1972): 163–64.

  Clinton Farms: J. Peet, "Edna Mahan Clung to Her Ideal," Newark Star Ledger, January 5, 2006.

  Peyton Rous and cancer causing viruses: Williams, Virus Hunters; Radetsky, Invaders; Francis Peyton Rous, http://www.geocities.com/ galenvagebn/RousFP.html; Britannica Nobel Prizes, http://www.britannica. com/nobel/micro/511_71.html; P. Rous, "Transmission of a Malignant New Growth by Means of a Cell-Free Filtrate," Journal of the American Medical Association January 21, 1911; G. Klein, "The Tale of the Great Cuckoo Egg," Nature 400 (1999): 515.

  Jackalopes: D. G. McNeill, "How a Vaccine Search Ended in Triumph," New York Times, August 29, 2006.

  Chicken leukemia virus: W. F. Hughes, D. H. Watanabe, and H. Rubin, "The Development of a Chicken Flock Apparently Free of Leukosis Virus," Avian Diseases 7 (1963): 154–65; P. K. Vogt, "Avian Tumor Viruses," Advances in Virus Research 11 (1965): 293–385; T. Graf and H. Beug, "Avian Leukemia Viruses: Interaction with Their Target Cells in vivo and in vitro," Biochemica et Biophysica Acta 516 (1978): 269–99; M. J. Hayman, "Transforming Proteins of Avian Retroviruses," Journal of General Virology 52 (1981): 1–14; R. C. Gallo and F. Wong-Staal, "Retroviruses as Etiologic Agents of Some Animal and Human Leukemias and Lymphomas and as Tools for Elucidating the Molecular Mechanism of Leukemogenesis," Blood 60 (1982): 545–57; M. J. Hayman, "Avian Acute Leukemia Viruses," Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 103 (1983): 109–25; K. Blister and H. W. Jansen, "Oncogenes in Retroviruses and Cells: Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics," Advances in Cancer Research 47 (1986): 99–188; H. Beug, A. Bauer, H. Dolznig, et al., "Avian Erythryopoiesis and Erythroleukemia: Towards Understanding the Role of the Biomolecules Involved," Biochemica et Biophysica Acta 1288 (1996): M37–M47; A. M. Fadley, "Avian Retroviruses," Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food and Animal Practice 13 (1997): 71–85.